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Discussion on:
Matter,
Energy,
Matter-Energy

Outlines the relationship of matter-energy, space-time and intelligence-consciousness as discussed in book entitled "Integrated Theory of Intelligence" which is one approach to a "Theory of Everything".

There is now a rather large variety of subatomic particles which have been experimentally verified. They differ from each other in certain ways best defined by their mass, charge, spin and energy equivalence. They collectively constitute the matter- energy spectrum. These subatomic particles were initially believed to represent the smallest solid objects in existence. They are now known to not be solid but rather highly concentrated foci of intense energy, which in some cases are stable, and in others are not stable. Superstring theory would suggest that the basic atomic particles are actually one-dimensional strings. This will be discussed later.

Every particle has a mass, which is roughly the same as weight, however mass is dependant upon both its energy and velocity. For instance an object becomes heavier when it is in rapid motion relative to when it is at rest. Mass has an energy equivalent as defined by Einstein's "E=mc²". This indicates that a particle can be totally converted into energy and gives the exact amount of energy expected when this occurs.

Some but not all particles have an electric charge and are always in fixed multiples of a fundamental unit usually either a positive or negative one. Protons and positrons both have a unit charge of + 1 even though the proton is two thousand times more massive than the positron. An electron has a charge of -1 and the same mass as a positron.

Particles also act as if they have a designated spin that comes in different multiple units. They have been divided into two distinct classes of bosons or fermions depending upon their spin. Those with a spin 0, 1 or 2 are called bosons and those with half-integral spin of 1/2 or 3/2 are called fermions.

Particles are also grouped into one of two categories depending upon which force they couple to. Particles that couple to the strong force are called hadrons and those that couple to the weak force are called leptons.

There are literally hundreds of hadrons which have been identified. The most common types are protons and neutrons however many others exist as composites of smaller objects. Not only do they couple to the strong force as indicated above but also to the weak force and gravity. All hadrons are comprised of more fundamental smaller particles called quarks or antiquarks. It requires three quarks of various types to make a proton or neutron. Other particle types that are heavier than electrons but lighter than protons are called mesons of which there are many. They are made of quark-antiquark pairs and have a very short life expectancy (half-life).

Leptons are elementary point-like objects which only couple to the weak force and seem to be oblivious to both the strong force and gravity. The electron is the best-known lepton and has an electric charge of -1. The neutrino is also a lepton but carries no charge. Since neutrinos have no charge and don't couple to either the strong force or gravity they pass right through matter easily being almost completely oblivious to its presence. Neutrinos are by far the most common particle in the universe outnumbering electrons and protons by a thousand million to one. The universe is actually a sea of neutrinos punctuated rarely by atoms of any kind.

There are other types of leptons including the muon and tauon. The muon is responsible for much of the background cosmic radiation. It is larger than an electron yet has the same charge and spin. It has a very short half-life decaying into an electron and two neutrinos in about two-millionths of a second. The tauon has a mass 3500 times greater than an electron. It has a negative charge and behaves much like an electron or muon.

Photons are particle and wavelike entities that travel only at the speed of light making up the electromagnetic spectrum and depending upon their energy level can appear as light waves, gamma or x-rays, ultraviolet or infrared light or radio waves. They are regarded as "real" when observed in this manner or "virtual" when they act as messenger photons between interacting particles such as electrons whenever an energy exchange is taking place.

Gravitons are postulated messenger particles somewhat analogous to photons. Whenever two particles exert a gravitational influence upon each other, gravitons are exchanged between them. Both gravitons and photons travel exclusively at the speed of light however there the resemblance ends. Photons carry only one unit of spin while gravitons carry two. The spin determines the direction of the force. With gravitons the direction of force is always attraction whereas photons can mediate either an attraction or a repulsion force.

Gluons are messenger particles analogous to photons that also have zero charge and zero mass and are responsible for "gluing" quarks together within the nucleus of an atom as they commute between them.

Messenger particles, which are responsible for the weak force, are different from any of the other messenger particles that result in all the other known forces. They are Wand Z particles both of which have some mass 85 and 95 respectively. The W messenger particle is also different from all of the others in that it can have either a positive or negative charge of 1. All other messenger particles which communicate a force have 0 charge.

The details which have been given for the various forces and particles reflects a very simplistic overview which is only a small sampling of what the physicist deals with however is presented to the general reader as an approximation of our physical reality. It is sufficient to allow one to formulate a visual image in one's mind's eye as to what the basic building blocks look like as well as the forces that bind them together. Superstring theory is redefining our image of atomic and subatomic particles and the forces that exist between them. One must remember however that our best descriptions of the subatomic realm represent mathematical metaphors at best. The descriptions are only approximations of our basic underlying reality. The message that I would hope to convey is that the basic units of our existence such as atomic and subatomic particles can be mathematically defined and described to a level of very high precision and that there are known forces which allow us to predict the behavior of these particles also with high precision. Tremendous uncertainty exists when predicting the behavior of anyone individual particle-like object however when viewed collectively much can be stated about the anticipated outcome. This is another example of the wonderful balance between order and chaos that permeates our universe. Physicists believe that all forces exist to enable nature to maintain a set of abstract symmetries in the world. It is not terribly important that the general reader remember what each particle or force does. What is important is to appreciate the high level of precision that the physicist has been able to describe and define the basic physical ingredients of the universe of which each of us is a part even if they are only metaphoric approximations.

Energy

Energy represents the capacity for doing work but also is much more since in essence it comprises all of our material existence. The atoms and molecules, which collectively are the building blocks for all seemingly solid objects that we observe throughout the universe, in reality, are made up of this non-solid substance. The atomic and subatomic particles are actually intensely concentrated foci of energy in a quantum field. Particles appear to exist where quantum fields interact. A field is spread out over a much larger area than a particle and completely fills a given space. When two fields interact they do so instantaneously. Wherever these local interactions occur, particles are perceived to be present. The continuous creation and annihilation of subatomic particles is the result of the continual interaction of different fields resulting in focal concentrations of intense energy at points in space. All particles can be transmuted into other particles. The faster the so-called particle moves, the higher its energy level. When a particle is viewed as a wave then its frequency is directly related to its energy level. The higher the frequency, the greater the energy level. The wavelength is inversely proportional to its energy level. The shorter the wavelength the greater the energy.

Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. It can take a great variety of forms including energy of heat, energy of motion, gravitational energy, chemical energy, electrical energy, etc. Electrical and chemical energy can be transformed into heat energy and used to perform work. The law of conservation of mass-energy indicates that whenever energy is transformed from one kind to another there is never any energy loss. The same concept applies when matter is converted into energy or vice versa. This law says that the total amount of mass-energy within the universe has been and will always be the same. Energy can be converted into mass and mass converted into energy but the total amount of mass-energy does not change.

When the appropriate amount of energy is available then particles can form from the energy. One good example is what is referred to as pair production. Energy within a field is transmuted into an electron and positron. The positron usually is quickly annihilated when it collides with another electron and the newly created matter is transformed back into energy.

Photons, which are both wave-like and particle-like objects, carry energy, the level of which is directly related to their frequency. They comprise the electromagnetic spectrum and can exist as radio waves, infrared waves, light waves, ultraviolet waves, X rays and gamma rays. All of the above travel at the speed of light. Their energy levels are relatively low in the radio wave part of the spectrum and continuously increase up to the gamma ray region. Each photon carries a discrete amount of energy in specific quantities referred to as quanta.

A particle's mass is usually given as its energy equivalent. An electron volt is a unit of energy yet it is used to express the mass of a particle. To create an electron from energy requires .51 million electron volts. When pair production occurs with the creation of both an electron and a positron then two times .51 mev or 1.02 mev is required. Any particle has both a rest mass which is the equivalent of its energy of “being” and an energy of , “motion” (kinetic) energy. The sum of these two energies is the equivalent of the particle’s total mass.

Whenever a single particle spontaneously disintegrates it always decays into lighter particles. The difference between the mass of the original particles and the total mass of the new particles is converted into kinetic energy of the new particles that carry it away. If colliding particles such as two protons interact to form new particles, which have a combined mass greater than the original, then kinetic energy of the projectile proton was absorbed into the creation of the particles. It is absolutely essential that the total combined mass and energy, which involves interacting particles that mutate from one kind to another, remain identically the same following the event. The new particles will each have a different mass and energy than the original ones but the combined mass and energy will be the same. Focal concentrations of energy create the illusion of solid subatomic particles "mass". Mass is energy.